Halliday And Hasans Cohesion In English English Language Essay

Halliday And Hasans Cohesion In English English Language Essay A relatively neglected aspect of the linguistic system is its resources for text construction, the range of meanings that are specifically associated with relating what being said. The principal component of these resources is that of cohesion. Through the last four decades, studies have been conducted by linguists to explain and examine cohesive features. The major work that influenced these studies is the one conducted by Halliday and Hasan (1976) on their book Cohesion in English. This paper attempts to explore Cohesion in Englishs content, highlight its influence on English language teaching, and investigate its impact on developing further works on cohesion. The concept of cohesion, according to Halliday and Hasan (1976), is a semantic one. It deals with the relations of meaning within any text. It occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another and, thus, a relation of cohesion is set up. The one presupposes the other, and cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. The two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are integrated into a text. As an example to illustrate the concept of cohesion, the old piece of schoolboy humour time flies, gives no indication of not being a complete text and in fact it usually is, and the humour lies in the misinterpretation that is required if there is a following sentence is to be satisfied. Halliday and Hasans interpretation of cohesion is further elaborated by approaching the notion of a cohesive tie. This is a term that is thought to be needed to refer to an occurrence of a pair of cohesively linked items. It is argued that the concept of a tie makes it possible to analyse any text in terms of its cohesive characteristics and gives a systemic account of its patterns of texture. In English, there are two ways by which cohesive ties are created: lexical and grammatical cohesion (Halliday and Hasan, 1976) and each of these ties has been explained and examined thoroughly by applied linguists in attempt to provide effective way of mastering these ties by English language learners. Lexical cohesion is simply interpreted by Halliday and Hasan (1976:274) as the cohesive effect achieved by the selection of vocabulary. It involves meaningful connections in text that are created through the use of lexical items and that do not intrinsically involve grammatical cohesive ties (Bloor, 2004). The two main categories linked with lexical cohesion are collocation and reiteration. Collocation covers two or more words which can be said to go together in the sense of frequency of occurrence (Bloor, 2004). Learners recognition of collocational ties depends in large measures on the amount of his or her reading or listening. The teacher should therefore, encourage learners to read more and provide a motivational environment in which learners are exposed to lexical collocations. Of the category of lexical reiteration, educators locate difficulty for students of forming a mental picture of the meaning of general nouns, and the fact that they cohere not with a single word but with a wider stretch of meaning. Many researchers have investigated the importance of teaching lexical cohesion in the language classroom. McGee (2008), for example, suggests that collocation errors are pervasive in student attempts to vary their lexis. As much as possible collocation knowledge must be developed alongside reiteration skill development. Collocation dictionaries or corpus data can be used by teachers to help give students the most typical or strongest collocates of important words. Cox, Shanahan, and Sulzby (1990: 60) argue that exposure to contrived texts has a negative effect on the development of a learners use of lexical cohesive ties in writing. They advise teachers not to over-simplify texts for their students as they believe that edited texts are not rich in their lexical cohesive ties. Grammatical cohesion, on the other hand, refers to the structural content, and it is categorised into four main cohesive ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis and conjunction. Reference is considered as a cohesive tie when two or more expressions in the text refer to the same person, thing or idea (Bloor, 2004:93). In relation to the main types of reference, Halliday and Hasan (1976) contrast between exophora and endophora, and suggest that exophoric reference is situational and the endophoric reference is textual. Though both exophoric and endophoric reference embody an instruction to retrieve from elsewhere the information necessary for interpreting a text, exophoric reference must be made to the context of situation whereas endophoric reference is realised by the position of the expressions in the text. Depending on these positions, one can speak of anaphoric and cataphoric reference. If an expression refers to a preceding expression/utterance, it is a case of anaphoric referenc e. Cataphoric reference refers to the following utterances or their parts (see Figure 1 below). Figure 1 , (Cited in Halliday and Hasan, 1976:33) Substitution, in contrary to the reference, is a relation in syntax rather than meaning. It is a grammatical relation used to avoid unnecessary and intrusive repetition of a lexical item by drawing on the grammatical recourses of the language to replace the item (Bloor, 2004). For example, in the conversation, Which ice-cream would you like? I would like the pink one , the word one is used instead of repeating ice-cream. There are three types of substitution in English: nominal (one, ones, the same), verbal (do/did) and clausal (so, not) substitution. Ellipsis is another kind of substitution but in this case a lexical item is substituted by zero. That is to say, rather being substituted in order to avoid unnecessary and intrusive repetition, an item is left unsaid. For example, the word Dormouse is elided after two: There was a table set out under a tree in front of the house, and the March Hare and the Hatter were having tea at it: a Dormouse was sitting between them, fast asleep, and the other two were using it as a cushion, resting their elbows on it, and talking over its head. Halliday and Hasan (1976) lists three types of ellipsis: nominal, the omission of head nouns in a nominal group; verbal, an ellipsis within the verbal group; and clausal, the omission of a clause. The notion of ellipsis has influenced English language teachers to draw on learners short-term memory and help them recognise when ellipsis has occurred in a certain text. The fourth and final type of cohesive ties is that of conjunction. It refers broadly to the combining of any two textual elements into a potentially coherent complex semantic unit (Thompson, 2004). Though the conjunctive elements (for example, then, for this reason, on the other hand) are used to describe the relationship between clauses and sections in the text, Halliday and Hasan (1976:226) suggest that they are not principally devices for reaching out into the preceding (or following) text, but they express certain meanings which presuppose the presence of other components in the discourse. They argue that in describing conjunction a cohesive device, the attention should not be on the semantic relations between the clauses linked by the conjuncts, rather on the conjunctive devices themselves and the function they have of relating to each other linguistic elements. Educational experts, however, attempt to refer to the notion of conjunction in accordance with what suits the English language learner to better achieve the mastery of this cohesive device. Zamil (1983), for example, suggests that rather than the typical textbook approach of presenting lists of conjuncts categorized according to meaning, it would be more effective to begin by classifying linking devices according to their grammatical functions. In other words, coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, or, but), subordinating conjunctions (e.g. because, although, if), and conjunctive adverbs (e.g. on the other hand, nevertheless) should all be introduced separately. In this way, students could learn how each type of marker works within the sentence and between sentences. Applied linguists have devoted many studies on how learners perceive and produce cohesive structures, and Halliday and Hasans work on cohesion triggers investigations on learners difficulties in recognising cohesive ties in both first and second language learning. Garrod and Sanford (1977b), for example, in experiments with adult L1 subjects, show that the time taken to read a sentence containing the second half of a lexically-conjoined tie is largely determined by the semantic distance between the two halves of the tie. In other words, all other content remaining constant, a pair of sentences containing a superordinate/subordinate lexical tie will take longer to read than a pair containing lexical tie involving repetition. Chapman and stokes (1980) research on the mastery of cohesive ties by L1 British children gives evidence that those children who are beginning to read fluently have the ability to perceive the cohesive factors and are thus able to integrate the text semantically, for they are constructing a meaningful whole as they read. In L2 situation, Cohen (1979) investigated university students reading of English texts in four complementary studies and all four of the studies revealed that learners were not picking up the conjunctive words signalling cohesion, not even the more basic ones like however and thus. Further, Pierce (1975) and Ewer (1980) both comment on the difficulties posed by the conjuncts and discourse markers, and advise that much more attention should be given to this category of tie in teaching reading. The work of Halliday and Hasan (1976) still provides the fullest account of cohesive ties in English (Bloor, 2004). However, there are several scholars who have developed Halliday and Hasans account to investigate deeply into the area. Hoey (1983, 1991), for example, investigates how cohesive features combine to organise long stretches of text. He approaches cohesion as related to some patterns of rhetorical organisation. A special attention on his work is given on cohesive chains and the significance of repetition. His contributions include ideas on the role of the sentence, which he suggests may be a part grammatical, part textual phenomenon, a view that is compatible with much on literature on the topic (Bloor, 2004). Another example to the influence of Halliday and Hasans Cohesion in English, is the work by Mann and Thompson (1992) which gathers different analyses by twelve different linguists of the same text. It incorporates distinct views in approaching discourse and may vary the classifications of text analysis. A further investigation of Halliday and Hasans (1976) work is conducted by Halliday and Matthiessen (1999) who bring broader theoretical perspective the area of language cohesion. Their work sheds light on many factors that lack of space has forced us to neglect. Apart from praise and influential impact cohesion in English has gained, one might note that it is not without its critics. Doyle (1982) ,for example, points out that Halliday and Hasan limit themselves to a discussion of meaning as it appears in surface structure; questions of coherence, of the relationships among propositions in the textual world created by the writer and recreated by the reader, remain unexamined. He argues that the very restrictions which Halliday and Hasan themselves placed upon their study beg questions and forestall observations which seem ultimately more interesting to the study of coherence than the taxonomy which results. In their decision to restrict their study to surface evidence of cohesion beyond the sentence, Halliday and Hasan restrict the relationships which their descriptive system may show. To sum up, Halliday and Hasans (1976) work on cohesion appears to set out a framework for the analysis and coding of cohesion and, therefore, offers a new dimension for language educators to approach language semantics and structure in the language classroom. Applied linguists and language teachers have been influenced by Cohesion in English on designing grammar lessons and language tasks that address lexical and grammatical cohesive ties.

Jurassic Park :: essays research papers

Two paleontologists, Alan Grant and Ellie Sattler, were financed by John Hammond, a very wealthy man. The two were visited by a man named Morris who was very interested about Hammond. Apparently he had leased an island off the west coast of Costa Rica for some type of big development that had been in the making for some 10 years. Part of the plan was to buy large quantities of amber, which drew attention from Morris, because amber was of little or no value.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shortly after the visit the two paleontologists were called by Hammond to come visit his island. He told them it was a type of biological preserve that he believed would alter all science across the world. Hammond needed them to come look at his island to give him their opinions about weather the island was safe for business. Hammond said the island would be called Jurassic Park.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the development of the island word spread of the new finding to a rival company. Dodgson, who worked with the company knew that he knew Hammond was on to something big and he wanted a part of it. He arranged to met with one of Hammond's employees, Nedry. At the park he was in charge of design of the park's computer system. Nedry informed Dodgson that they were recreating dinosaur embryos but wasn't sure how. Nedry agreed to steal embryos from the park in exchange for $1 million.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the meantime Sattler and Grant arrived at the island where they met friends of Hammond’s, including Ian Malcolm, a famous mathematician. The others were Dennis Nedry; Henry Wu, the brains behind the park; and Ed Regis, a lawyer. Later Hammond's grandchildren arrived, Lex and Tim.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When all had arrived and were settled the tour began. It consisted of six people: Hammond's grandchildren, Malcom, Dr.Sattler and Dr.Grant, and Ed Regis. While on the tour it was explained how the dinosaurs were created. First amber that had hardened millions of years ago with mosquitoes or other blood drinking bugs. DNA was extracted from the blood and was used to recreate dinosaur embryos. There were 15 different species and 238 individual dinosaurs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During the tour weather became bad weather. Because of the bad weather all power went out and without Nedry, who was quietly stealing embryos, it could not be fixed. However, Nedry was killed by a dinosaur because of a wrong turn.

Harlem Renaissance Poem Analysis Paper

Lee-Michael Torcedo Prof. Quiroz English 1302 October 22, 2012 Dreams After the civil war, African Americans obtained their freedom. Still despised by many white Americans, African Americans continued to fight for justice. Around the early 1900’s the Harlem Renaissance began across the nation they fought for their culture and expressed it through art, music, dance, and literature. One of the biggest names in the Harlem Renaissance is Langston Hughes (Harlem). The poems he wrote better expressed the feelings of the many African Americans during this era.Langston Hughes published his poem, â€Å"As I Grew Older,† which explains the difficulty many African Americans had with following their dreams during this time. On February 1, 1902, Carrie M. Langston and James N. Hughes gave birth to, arguably, the most famous Harlem Renaissance literary poet, Langston Hughes. He grew up attending school in Kansas and Illinois, and graduated from High School in Ohio where he began writ ing his poetry. Later, Hughes went on to college, but stopped shortly after.He took many jobs in New York and a job working on a freighter that took him across the Atlantic Ocean to African, Spain, and France. He returned to Washington D. C. to live with his mother with hopes of returning to college. He had trouble making enough money and didn’t go back to college until a year later where he graduated from Lincoln University in 1929. After college, he began publishing his works and started to become famous. On May 22, 1967, Langston Hughes died of cancer in New York (Langston). Langston Hughes’ legend still lives to this day, and his poems are often mentioned in literature.In his poem â€Å"As I Grew Older,† published in 1925, he begins by saying â€Å"It was a long time ago/ I have almost forgotten my dream/ But it was there then/ In front of me/ Bright like a sun—/ My dream† (1-4). Whether or not Langston Hughes wrote this about himself or not, i t can go either way on who could be mentioning this and who is reflecting on the past that was a â€Å"long time ago†. Hughes gave the perspective that the main persona is talking about his past and about how even though his dream was right in front of him, he could not grasp it.In the early ages of Langston Hughes life, many obstacles barricaded him from reaching his dreams and goals, losing sights of what he really wanted. He talks about a wall in the poem that rises slowly between him and this dream. It â€Å"rose until it touched the sky† (11). The wall symbolizes his obstacles or what blocked him from his dreams. The wall rising until it touched the sky showed the degree and emphasis of the difficulty for Hughes to see his dreams. On line thirteen he mentions the shadow that the wall covered him in. There was no more light to be seen.All hope seemed to be lost until he â€Å"breaks† down the wall, â€Å"shatters† the darkness, and â€Å"smashes† the night. At the other side of this wall, is light, the sun, and his dream. Langston Hughes must have at one point in following his dream felt so overwhelmed with everything in his way and just â€Å"lie down in the shadow† (15). Just like in his poem, he takes down that wall and does not let it get in his way. He is successful in reaching his dream of becoming a well-known poet even through the worst of times. His poem reflects the situation many African Americans faced during this time.Freedom is still new to most and following dreams is difficult because of prejudism. Many African Americans ran into this â€Å"wall† and many did not break through as Langston Hughes did. Although some did, they went through the same difficulties as Hughes poetically explained in his poem. The beauty of this poem is the universality of it. It may have been written to explain the difficulties African Americans had, but it reflects the difficulty for anyone following their dreams sh ould not be forgotten. They are not always easy to achieve, but that does not mean one should give up.The poem is powerful in meaning and motivational as it speaks to anyone and illustrates that you should never surrender. Langston Hughes’ dream as a young boy was to be known as a poet. Much like the wall, he had to overcome many obstacles to achieve his dreams. He would vision his dream so clearly in front of him like the sun but as he got older and taller, so did this wall that blocked his way. Even though, Hughes smashed down that wall and become one of the most well-known founders of the Harlem Renaissance. Works Cited â€Å"Harlem Renaissance – Biography. com – Biography. com. †Ã‚  Famous Biographies & TV Shows – Biography. om. N. p. , n. d. Web. 22  Oct. 2012. . Hughes, Langston. â€Å"As I Grew Older by Langston Hughes. †Ã‚  PoemHunter. Com – Thousands of poems and poets. Poetry Search Engine. N. p. , 3  Jan. 2003. Web. 22à ‚  Oct. 2012. . â€Å"Langston Hughes Biography – life, children, parents, name, story, history, school, mother, book, information, born, college. †Ã‚  Encyclopedia of World Biography. N. p. , n. d. Web. 22  Oct. 2012. .

On The Issues The Race for Virgina Governor - 1360 Words

This year’s 2013 Governor of Virginia campaign was a tight race for the Republican and Democrat contenders. The candidates were Republican Ken Cuccinelli, Democrat Terry McAuliffe and Libertarian Robert Sarvis. These campaigners had different views on marriage, immigration, and abortion, among other issues commonly discussed in politics within our country. Marriage is a controversial subject in every part of the world. Whether you believe in traditional marriage between a man and woman, same sex marriage, or open marriages, everyone usually has a strong opinion on what they were brought up believing or think is right. Ken Cuccinelli is a firm believer in traditional marriage. His firm views are based on his Catholic roots. He had†¦show more content†¦Sarvis mother is an immigrant from Asia, where he gets his Chinese roots. He believes in an open society that welcomes all backgrounds of people and hopes to see greater numbers of immigrants in the United States and Virginia each year. One phrase Sarvis repeated numerous times during his campaigning was â€Å"Virginia should be a place that is open-minded and open for business, that provides equal protection of the laws to all people, that ensures personal freedom, that fosters open and competitive markets where people of all skill levels can compete on a level playing field.â⠂¬  ( Sarvis. Immigration. Robertsarvis.com.). My views on immigration are slightly different than some of those of the candidates. I believe immigration is good for America if proper procedures are executed. Criminal background checks need to be enforced to curb drug trafficking and other criminal acts. Resources should be distributed to natural born citizens and legalized immigrants before given to those just entering our country. On the subject of abortion, Ken Cuccinelli strongly opposes it. Although it has been said by his competitor that Cuccinelli does not support abortion even in the case of rape, incest, or the mothers endangerment this has been a partly false statement. He only supports abortion if the mother’s life is at stake. He had previously described himself as â€Å"the most aggressive pro-life leader in the VirginiaShow MoreRelatedRacial Project : Jim Crow Laws1201 Words   |  5 PagesWinant, their texts give insight to our understanding of what is a racial project. A racial project explains how â€Å"[racial dynamics] are simultaneously an interpretation, representation, and explanation† (Omi et. al 54). Racial projects offer insight how race is linked to both structure and representation by the ideology that is primarily evident by everyday practices whether it be found institutionally or individually. The Jim Crow Laws are a prominent and notable example of a racial project. Jim CrowRead MoreApush American Pageant Chapter 1 -24887 Words   |  20 Pagesthe African Coastal Islands. Portugeses adverntures here were the origins of a plantation economy. 6. Spain - Spain became much more unified after the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, they were eager to outstrip their portuguse rivals in the race to tap wealth of the indies. Portugal controlled African coast, so Spain looked westward. 7. Words Collided (Exchanges) - Essentially after the discovery of the New World, Africa became the laborers, Europe - Markets, and Americas - Resources. TheRead MoreProject Mgmt296381 Words   |  1186 Pagesresearch highlights that continue to promote practical application of project management. Overall the text addresses the major questions and issues the authors have encountered over their 60 combined years of teaching project management and consulting with practicing project managers in domestic and foreign environments. The following questions represent the issues and problems practicing project managers find consuming most of their effort: What is the strategic role of projects in contemporary organizations

The Causation Of Child Molestation - 1322 Words

Causation of Child Molestation There are several different types of abuse, from sexual abuse to verbal abuse etc. Many happen within our own homes and the act is very unnoticeable. People being sexually attracted to children used to account for a very small percentage of people. However, as time continues more child sexual offenders are being reported. As time continues more children are facing the experience of being molested. Child sexual abuse faced not only in the United States but also around the world affects many children. The use of different terms such as pedophilia, child molestation, and sexual abuse are used to express the crime that happens to the young kids of the world. â€Å"A pedophile is a person who has a sustained sexual orientation toward children, generally aged 13 or younger† (Blanchard, 2005). â€Å"A child molester is any older child or adult who touches a child for his or her own sexual gratification and child molestation is the act of sexually touch ing a child† (Child Molestation Research and Prevention institute, 2016). There are many children affected by child molestation and sexual abuse, according to the U.S. Department of Justice, â€Å"In a 2012 maltreatment report, of the victims who were sexually abused, 26% were in the age group of 12–14 years and 34% were younger than 9 years.† (U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2000). While there is no debate on whether or not child molestation is looked downShow MoreRelatedThe Never Ending Search For An Answer888 Words   |  4 Pagesand biological predispositions that may have made her more susceptible to provocation. These aspects can be further scrutinized by focusing on the trait theory of criminology. The trait theory focuses on the abnormal biological and psychological causations of criminal behaviors (Siegel, Larry 2011). It is well known that Wuornos had grown up in a hostile environment, void of love, safety, and care. Wuornos’ parents abandoned her, her grandparents abused her; she had never a genuine attachment figureRead MoreCrimes Against Children1739 Words   |  7 Pages Techniques for Successful Outcomes ABSTRACT Child abuse clearly has a negative impact on children and can result in behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and developmental difficulties. This may lead to greater difficulties later in life that will extend into adulthood. The use of proper investigation techniques and appropriate handling of cases, however, can result in less traumatization for child abuse victims. I. Introduction AccordingRead MoreTheories of Sexual Offending2501 Words   |  11 Pagesoffspring (Bennell et al., 2011). Even with an understanding of evolutionary psychology, it does not explain why some people still commit sexual assault today. We need to look at what factors are involved. There are two different levels of causation: proximate and ultimate. Proximal causes are immediate influences, operating over the short term and driving the behaviour, for example, intoxication, sexual arousal or feeling the need to dominate someone. Proximate causes refer to the immediateRead MoreFoster Care Essay1822 Words   |  8 PagesWhile many do have underlying issues surrounding their history of abuse or neglect, many would be just like any other child if their situation were just a little more pleasant (Jefcik). The Foster Care system may seem complicated but in all reality, it is decently straightforward. Firstly, in legal terms, the CPA (Child Placing Agency) determines the environment in which the child/children are living is no longer acceptable/safe according to state standards. Secondly, a judge is assigned to the caseRead MoreRepressed Memories Essay3891 Words   |  16 Pagesabuse. A false memory is created when an event that really happened becomes confused with images produced by trying to remember an imagined event. The term false memory syndrome refers to the notion that illusionary and untrue memories of earlier child abuse can be recalled by adult clients during therapy. In an increasingly polarized and emotive debate, extreme positions have been adopted, on one side by those believing that recovered memories nearly always represent actual traumatic experiencesRead MorePorn and Censorship15240 Words   |  61 Pagesexplicit material has often been thought to be harmful to i ts (mostly male) consumers: for example, by corrupting their morals or by making them less likely to be able to have long-term, loving sexual relationships. Many people strongly object to child pornography: that subset of sexually explicit material that involves depictions of actual children (sometimes as young as one week) engaged in sexual activity. This class of sexually explicit material is widely regarded as objectionable because it

Martin Luther King s Letter From The Birmingham Jail

Martin Luther King preached the realities of what justice truly is. Nearly 50 years later our world is still having trouble with these ideas. There is no doubt that Martin Luther King was an extremely virtuous man. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, had a Ph.D. in systematic theology, was a baptist minister, and was probably the most recognized person in the civil rights movement. He was assassinated in 1968. The incident as described by Thich Nhat Hanh; I couldn t believe it. I thought the American people had produced a king, but are not capable of preserving him. There is an untestable amount of information describing true Justice in Martin s 1963 letter from the Birmingham Jail. In April 1963 he was jailed for peaceful protest, and charged with parading without a permit. He used this time to address fellow clergy members who called his protest unwise and untimely. The letter is one of the most robust, and well written documents on justice. If you would like to read it, you can do so here. Otherwise I d like to touch on some of the themes we can learn from this letter. Early in the letter, Martin describes four essential steps to a nonviolent campaign. Collection of the facts to determine whether injustice exists Negotiation Self purification Direct Action It s important to realize these steps are sequential, they result from some form of failure during the previous step. Just laws and unjust laws He claims we have not just a legal responsibility, but aShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1690 Words   |  7 Pages1960’s were a time of civil disobedience and protest against the inequalities in America. Specifically, in Birmingham, Alabama, in the year 1962, Martin Luther King Jr. spoke out against the racial inequalities in one of the most famous letters in America’s history: â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† This letter was sent to a group of Alabama clergymen who chastised King’s disobedience. The letter was written with the purpose to encourage these eight men to side with King. Martin Luther King Jr.’s knowledgeRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1860 Words   |  8 Pagesdisobedience as identified by Martin Luther King is a form of direct action, and an outright refusal to conform to laws as a form of protest. Martin Luther King addresses this method of resistance in his text, â€Å"Le tter from Birmingham Jail†. Martin Luther King Jr personally drafted the text as a response to criticisms made in a statement by clergymen whom apposed King’s nonviolent methods of resistance to continuous issues of racism occurring in Birmingham, Alabama. As expressed by King and described in hisRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail998 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr. seldom had time to answer his critics. But on April 16, 1963, he was confined to the Birmingham jail, imprisoned for participating in civil rights demonstrations. â€Å"Alone for days in the dull monotony of a narrow jail cell,† King pondered a letter titled A Call for Unity that fellow clergymen had published pressing him to drop his crusade of nonviolent resistance and to leave the battle for racial equality to the courts. Within that document, King’s fellow clergymen caste himRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1562 Words   |  7 PagesDr. Martin Luther King, one of the most influential men in the world, had played a pivotal role during the Civil Rights movement. He led the entire nation in the fight to end segregation, but while trying, he faced many obstacles, one being getting arrested during a rally. While in jail, King had time to respond to the critics of his work in the movement, and he wrote a marvelous, captivating response. In King’s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† he replied and prof essed his emotions to the white clergymenRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1509 Words   |  7 Pagespeople to fight for their freedom with words and not their fists. Martin Luther King Jr. used the power of rhetoric during the civil rights movement to gain equality for the black community. MLK was a master of rhetoric and used his knowledge of proper arguments to sway the opinions of people in power to get what he wanted. Even though Martin Luther King includes an abundance of rhetorical devices in the â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† he most effectively utilizes ethos and logos, elevating his perceivedRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From A Birmingham Jail1157 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King Jr.’s â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† is directed towards the clergymen, although America is his audience, King had come to Birmingham to address the segregation problem in the United States. He refuses to stay silent, even though people told him to wait for the change to happen. King is a part of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference that has many organizations across the South. He felt that he has a right to be in Birmingham because his organizations have connections withRead MoreAnalysis Of Martin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail955 Words   |  4 PagesBy 1963, when Martin Luther King planned a campaign against segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. During the demonstration he was arrested and lives in the jail for eight days. While he was in prison, he wrote his letter from Birmingham Jail to explain his actions and those who urged him to call off the demonstrations. Martin Luther King Jr. Birmingham Jail is important because, he explains the reasons for the non-violent demonstrations, he shows that black people are intelligent, and he criticizesRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail934 Words   |  4 PagesIn Martin Luther King Jr.’s , â€Å" Letter from Birmingham Jail†, King responds to the judgments of a group of clergymen , after King s arrest, by writing a letter explaining why the clergymen s judgments were wrong. In his letter, king brings very reasonable and valid points that challenge the judgments of the ministers. The main arguments that king makes would be the reason of his existence in Birmingham, white power structure and its racial injustice, and finally why negotiation has brought up impatienceRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail1223 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr.’s, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† emphasizes the need for civil disobedience when faced with unjust laws. This idea contradicts Socrates’ claim made in Crito, that one must follow the law under all circumstances. In this paper, I will argue that Socrates is not a proponent of civil disobedience based on King’s definition of civil disobedience and Socrates’ charges. Moreover, I will argue that both Socrates and King disagree with one another based on the concept of civilRead MoreAnalysis Of Martin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1037 Words   |  5 PagesEssay Four Topic: Read Martin Luther King’s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail† (in your Nexus book) and Brent Staples’s â€Å"Black Men and Public Space.† What do these works say about racism, prejudice, and bias? Have we made any progress in these areas since their publication? What problems do you still see and what solutions can you offer? According to Opposing Viewpoints Online, Racism is â€Å"a prejudice or an animosity against a person or group of people who belong to a different race†. Many Americans wrongly Martin Luther King s Letter From The Birmingham Jail Martin Luther King’s â€Å"Letter from the Birmingham Jail† addresses the issue of individual civil rights. In the context of the racially segregated south, Martin Luther King argues that civil rights are not being protected for the power minority. An oppressed group has their civil rights unprotected and thus are marginalized; an oppressed individual does not have equal civil rights to an oppressed individual and it is this difference that creates the distinction between the oppressed and unoppressed. King mentions examples of how the black minority is being oppressed and not given equal civil rights, such as police brutality and unfair prosecution, racial humiliation, and restricted economic and social opportunities. In order to protect individual civil rights for all the oppressed group, which lacks equal civil rights, must strongly and unwaveringly pursue these rights. Like how the black civil rights movement pursued equal civil rights, an oppressed group must repe atedly actively pursue equality from their oppressors and thus restore individual civil rights. Laws that impede these rights are unjust according to King. An unjust law is an immoral law. King uses religious reasoning as well as objective reasoning in order to determine what is just versus unjust. In terms of religion, an unjust law is a law that corrupts the soul by preventing people from feeling as equals and thus goes against the religious idea that all people are equal under god. In terms of objectiveShow MoreRelatedMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1690 Words   |  7 Pages1960’s were a time of civil disobedience and protest against the inequalities in America. Specifically, in Birmingham, Alabama, in the year 1962, Martin Luther King Jr. spoke out against the racial inequalities in one of the most famous letters in America’s history: â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail.† This letter was sent to a group of Alabama clergymen who chastised King ’s disobedience. The letter was written with the purpose to encourage these eight men to side with King. Martin Luther King Jr.’s knowledgeRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1860 Words   |  8 Pagesdisobedience as identified by Martin Luther King is a form of direct action, and an outright refusal to conform to laws as a form of protest. Martin Luther King addresses this method of resistance in his text, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail†. Martin Luther King Jr personally drafted the text as a response to criticisms made in a statement by clergymen whom apposed King’s nonviolent methods of resistance to continuous issues of racism occurring in Birmingham, Alabama. As expressed by King and described in hisRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail998 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr. seldom had time to answer his critics. But on April 16, 1963, he was confined to the Birmingham jail, imprisoned for participating in civil rights demonstrations. â€Å"Alone for days in the dull monotony of a narrow jail cell,† King pondered a letter titled A Call for Unity that fellow clergymen had published pressing him to drop his crusade of nonviolent resistance and to leave the battle for racial equality to the courts. Within that document, King’s fellow clergymen caste himRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1562 Words   |  7 PagesDr. Martin Luther King, one of the most influential men in the world, had played a pivotal role during the Civil Rights movement. He led the entire nation in the fight to end segregation, but while trying, he faced many obstacles, one being getting arrested during a rally. While in jail, King had time to respond to the critics of his work in the movement, and he wrote a marvelous, captivating response. In King’s â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† he replied and prof essed his emotions to the white clergymenRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From The Birmingham Jail939 Words   |  4 PagesMartin Luther King preached the realities of what justice truly is. Nearly 50 years later our world is still having trouble with these ideas. There is no doubt that Martin Luther King was an extremely virtuous man. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964, had a Ph.D. in systematic theology, was a baptist minister, and was probably the most recognized person in the civil rights movement. He was assassinated in 1968. The incident as described by Thich Nhat Hanh; I couldn t believe it. I thought theRead MoreMartin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail1509 Words   |  7 Pagespeople to fight for their freedom with words and not their fists. Martin Luther King Jr. used the power of rhetoric during the civil rights movement to gain equality for the black community. MLK was a master of rhetoric and used his knowledge of proper arguments to sway the opinions of people in power to get what he wanted. Even though Martin Luther King includes an abundance of rhetorical devices in the â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† he most effectively utilizes ethos and logos, elevating his perceivedRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From A Birmingham Jail1157 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King Jr.’s â€Å"Letter from a Birmingham Jail† is directed towards the clergymen, although America is his audience, King had come to Birmingham to address the segregation problem in the United States. He refuses to stay silent, even though people told him to wait for the change to happen. King is a part of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference that has many organizations across the South. He felt that he has a right to be in Birmingham because his organizations have connections withRead MoreAnalysis Of Martin Luther King s Letter From Birmingham Jail955 Words   |  4 PagesBy 1963, when Martin Luther King planned a campaign aga inst segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. During the demonstration he was arrested and lives in the jail for eight days. While he was in prison, he wrote his letter from Birmingham Jail to explain his actions and those who urged him to call off the demonstrations. Martin Luther King Jr. Birmingham Jail is important because, he explains the reasons for the non-violent demonstrations, he shows that black people are intelligent, and he criticizesRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail934 Words   |  4 PagesIn Martin Luther King Jr.’s , â€Å" Letter from Birmingham Jail†, King responds to the judgments of a group of clergymen , after King s arrest, by writing a letter explaining why the clergymen s judgments were wrong. In his letter, king brings very reasonable and valid points that challenge the judgments of the ministers. The main arguments that king makes would be the reason of his existence in Birmingham, white power structure and its racial i njustice, and finally why negotiation has brought up impatienceRead MoreMartin Luther King Jr. s Letter From Birmingham Jail1223 Words   |  5 PagesMartin Luther King, Jr.’s, â€Å"Letter from Birmingham Jail,† emphasizes the need for civil disobedience when faced with unjust laws. This idea contradicts Socrates’ claim made in Crito, that one must follow the law under all circumstances. In this paper, I will argue that Socrates is not a proponent of civil disobedience based on King’s definition of civil disobedience and Socrates’ charges. Moreover, I will argue that both Socrates and King disagree with one another based on the concept of civil

The Portrayal Of Ancient Rulers Essay Research free essay sample

The Portrayal Of Ancient Rulers Essay, Research Paper The Portrayal of Ancient Rulers Throughout history, the thought of what a swayer is has evolved. In ancient societies the manner of leading evolved from royal leading to politically appointed emperors. Inheritance of a throne and kingship subsided after Alexander the Great # 8217 ; s universe domination. Alternatively, leaders came to power through political and military art, and if their leading was unsatisfactory they would normally be overthrown. With the development of leading throughout ancient times, came the development of art portraying the swayers of the epoch. The personality and authorization portrayed in portrayals, employ different agencies of look. In the ancient Egyptian sculpture of King Menkaure and his Queen, a tetradrachm coin of ancient Greece picturing Alexander the Great, and the portrayal sculpture of the emperor Philip the Arab from Rome, it is apparent that portraiture of ancient swayers in art evolves in conformity with the political clime. King Menkaure and Queen Khamerenebty ruled during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt, circa 2533-2515 BCE. The 4th Dynasty is associated with the Great Pyramids of Giza. The increasing wealth of the governing households of the period is reflected in their big, luxuriant royal portrayals. The statue of King Menkaure and his married woman, standing 4 # 8217 ; 8 # 8221 ; high, was found in the Valley Temple of the pyramid of Menkaure at Giza. It is a good illustration of Old Kingdom royal tomb sculpture, although it is the first known work picturing a twosome. The brace statue of Menkaure and Khamerenebty exemplifies both self-respect and matrimonial fondness. The statue of King Menkaure and his Queen exhibits with lucidity the Egyptian devotedness of art to a cannon of proportions. Its strictly frontal position point, the stiff airss of the figures, and a faithful conformity to regulations and established imposts can be interpreted as attesting the nature of the Pharaoh # 8217 ; s authorization over his topics while at the same clip representing the extremely regulated, hierarchal construction of ancient Egyptian society. The mensural grid of verticals and compensating horizontals, the stiff unreal positions and the overall idealised anatomical forms of the organic structures combined with naturalism is declarative of Egyptian gustatory sensation for art and a representation of the character of Egyptian civilization. Menkaure # 8217 ; s stance appears self-asserting, bespeaking his power. He is portrayed in the familiar Egyptian airs, with his left leg extended frontward, his weaponries held stiff at his sides and his fists clenched. He is represented as a mature, vigorous adult male, likely in his 30s. He has slender hips, wide shoulders, and well-developed weaponries. His organic structure has been made to look life like ; overall he represents the ideal of manful beauty in ancient Egypt. The image of his face and vesture are idealized and declarative of his power. Projecting from his mentum is a short, striped, squared-off ceremonial face fungus. On his caput he wears a nemes, or headgear, the sides of which are pulled back behind his big ears and the wattles fall on the sides of his thorax. The face fungus and headgear are the primary symbols of his Pharaonic position. The merely other article of vesture he wears is a kilt, which is folded across the forepart, with one terminal falling down beneath, and held in topographic point with a belt around his waist. Following to Menkaure stands his Queen, Khamerenebty. She stands in a more realistic manner than Menkaure. Her right arm reaches around his waist and her left 1 is dead set at the cubitus, keeping his left arm. The Queen # 8217 ; s gesture serves to convey them integrity. Her relaxed airs, her smaller pace frontward, the less stiff place of her weaponries, and her unfastened custodies indicate her low-level place. Therefore, her airs can be interpreted as that of a inactive, duteous married woman standing following to her powerful hubby. The intervention of her vesture is intended to uncover and depict the signifiers of her organic structure. She wears a long, really thin, close adjustment garment, which clings to her organic structure without creases or folds. Her chests are outlined and the mammillas demoing, her umbilicus and the bump of her pot are besides indicated. The material clings around her pubic country, demoing a triangular form with the two lower meeting sides following the swerving lines of her inguen. This possibly is a representation of her birthrate. The portrayal must be a reproduction of the adult male in order to function his spirit after decease. Therefore, the sculpturer has gone into item to demo the individualism of King Menkaure and his Queen. This is seen in his strongly defined characteristics and in the libertine face and chubby cheeks of Khamerenebty. Their characteristics are non peculiarly blue ; their royalty is depicted more through the looks and place of the face. His firmly set jaw, somewhat tilted face and direct line of sight are indexs of his authorization. This portrayal gives him permanency for infinity and proper lodging for their Ka. Traveling off from ancient Egyptian royal sculpture, ancient Greek art evolved from the idealized to naturalism and pragmatism. In the Egyptian sculpture of Menkaure and his Queen the chief aspect bespeaking power is the organic structure and position. By contrast, the ancient Grecian word picture of Alexander the Great on the tetradrachm coin does non necessitate a organic structure to give an kernel of power. Word picture on coins entirely is an index of power. Alexander the Great was one of the greatest generals of all clip and one of the most powerful swayers of antiquity. As caput of a Grecian ground forces, he started east on what became one of the greatest conquerings of ancient times. Once he rose to the throne, he was successful in uniting Greece, the n suppressing Persia, Gaza, Egypt, Babylon and India. Because of the success of his conquerings, the Ag tetradrachm of Alexander was likely the most widely distributed coin of ancient times. The tetradrachm of Alexander depicts him in a manner that ordains his deity and power. It shows Alexander in profile have oning the curling random-access memory horns of Amun/Zeus. Amun is the equivalent of Zeus in Egyptian mythology. During the conquest of Egypt, Alexander visited the Oracle of Amun. The main priest of Amun welcomed him, naming him the Son of God. This event established his deity and gave him rights to have on the horns of his # 8216 ; father # 8217 ; . However, his portraiture with the horns of Amun is non the lone characteristic set uping his power. The image of Alexander perceived from his portraiture on the tetradrachm coin is of a determined, successful, compassionate swayer. His heavy characteristics give him a sense of strength. He has a high-bridged protruding olfactory organ, thick short cervix, big full lips, big deep set eyes looking somewhat upward, little brow, pronounced Adam # 8217 ; s apple, and little mentum. The crown he wears besides serves to set up his power and leading, holding gained universe domination. The portrayal of Alexander was done in carven alleviation on Ag, with jumping high and low alleviation functioning to give the image more pragmatism. The horns of Amun that Alexander wears are in the highest alleviation, giving the most of import characteristic the highest visibleness. The lower alleviation of the oculus serves to give him an arched forehead and sunken eyes-a expression of finding. His instead big, full lips are done in somewhat higher alleviation than the remainder of his oral cavity, about looking as if they are pursed in a scowl. While the in lowest alleviation are the little beads bordering the coin. The consequence is a realistic portraiture of a swayer. The word picture of Alexander on the coin is a dependable and identifiable portrayal ; unlike most ancient Grecian sculptures and portrayals of swayers and work forces which are idealized to demo adult male as vernal, athletic, to a great extent muscled, and naked. This coin was issued some thirty old ages after Alexander # 8217 ; s decease, and after the constitution of the Hellenistic lands. Artists in the Hellenistic epoch sought to stand for the person and the particular. This marked the beginning of royal portrayal on coins. In contrast to the deified portraiture of Alexander, the representation of Philip the Arab of Rome is that of a common adult male. The altering character of imperial regulation influenced the development of portrayal sculpture during Rome # 8217 ; s Late Empire. Unlike earlier swayers of antiquity who came to power through heritage, emperors of this clip period gained political power from successful military leading. The in-between decennaries of the third century were characterized by unrest in many domains of life: economic, spiritual, military, and political. Philip seized power in 244 CE from Gordian III, after plotting his slaying. His short reign, before being murdered himself, was successful. Philip # 8217 ; s calling is typical of his clip, but historiographers have maligned his memory since his decease, and it has affected the apprehension of his public portrayals. The flop of Philip the Arab was sculpted around 244-249 CE in the Republican veristic manner. This manner is concerned in capturing the exterior similitude of a individual with seeable inside informations. Philip is portrayed as a common Roman and as an emperor with concerns over affairs of the province. It is a unusually good portraiture of Philip and a great illustration of Roman portrayal sculpture with its accurate presentation of psychological features and expressiveness. The sculpturer has captured a impermanent fugitive look ; apparently of anxiousness as Philip turns his caput to the right. The consequence is about that of a exposure. The rugged forehead drilled uplifted eyes and to a great extent lined forehead service to give Philip a bemused expression. His image is an look of the utmost anxiousness and emphasis of troubled times. Interestingly, Philip does non face the witness with a expression of bid ; alternatively, he turns off with an look of unhappiness and hurt. Rather than seeing this as illustrative of Philip # 8217 ; s # 8220 ; craft, fraudulence, and fear # 8221 ; ( Stokstad, pg. 277 ) , it may be fairer to construe the look as representative of Philip # 8217 ; s attentions for the sate and devotedness to the people # 8217 ; s desires. Extensive item shows the folds of Philip # 8217 ; s face and the all right chaff of a face fungus. This is a mark that the sculpturer wanted to demo Philip # 8217 ; s individualism, non merely physically, but besides in his manner of leading. The accurate contemplation of Philip # 8217 ; s true exterior image facilitates the realistic word picture of him as swayer. In decision, the portraiture of ancient swayers is dependent non merely on the manner of art popular during the epoch, but besides on the development of the political clime. The portraiture of Menkaure, a Pharaoh of the Old Kingdom in ancient Egypt, is of complete authorization, control and power. His face does non demo concern or heartache over his people, because he is non challenged politically, the image of control coincides with his exclusive power over the land. While the word picture of Alexander the Great, in ancient Grecian coins is deified. Alexander # 8217 ; s leading ended with universe domination ; hence, his deified portraiture on pecuniary financess is peculiarly appropriate. By contrast, Philip the Arab # 8217 ; s portrayal sculpture about resembles a present twenty-four hours exposure with its gaining control of fugitive look. This look of anxiousness and unhappiness is a representation of the political convulsion during the clip period of his regulation. Taking th e advancement of antediluvian civilizations into history, how does the art of sculpting better in the use of the medium used?